EDAT 6115
Reflection Blog #3
Chapter 6 – Cognitive Theories of Learning
Description
The Information Processing Model is the dominant theory of learning and memory. (Slavin p. 122) The main idea of this model to explain the way that information enters our minds and is stored in our memories. This happens through three executive processes: the sensory register where the information is gathered from the senses, the working or short term memory which can hold a small amount of information for a few seconds, and long term memory which is likely never forgotten. (Slavin p. 124, 125, 127) There are many strategies that can be used to help increase the amount of information that is stored in both short- and long-term memory. There are skills that can be taught to help students learn more intentionally and effectively.
Analysis
The Information Processing Model, which continues to be researched, is an extremely complex process of how the brain gathers information and then either stores it or forgets it. Initially, the brain gathers information through the senses – this can be either conscious or unconscious. This information is held for a short time and quickly lost. In order to retain the information, people must pay attention. It takes time to consciously think about the information that is gathered. (Slavin p. 124). The second stage of information processing is the short-term memory. Here the information can be held for a few seconds or lost. One of main ways that people hold onto this information is by rehearsal – which is to think about it or say it over and over. (Slavin p. 125). A great point with this was that teachers need to allow time during class for rehearsal. Students need time to mentally rehearse the information in order to hold onto it. (Slavin p. 125). People can also hold onto more information if it is organized instead of being random. Another factor in enhancing the working memory is the amount of background knowledge that a person has about the subject. This is also referred to later in the chapter in the section about schema. (Slavin p 127,145). Once information is stored into the long-term memory it will be stored there forever; however, the tricky part is remembering or finding the information when we want it. (p 127).
There are three types of memories: episodic, semantic, and procedural. Episodic memories are memories of personal experiences which are usually stored as visual or auditory images. Semantic memory is the network of ideas. This is where people understand and incorporate new information. (Slavin, p. 128) Finally, procedural memory is where the brain stores information about how to do something, usually a physical task such as riding a bike, catching a ball, or typing.
This chapter contained a lot of information about how to enhance memory, how the brain works, and how it develops. The information was fascinating. However, the practical ideas about how to incorporate the information about cognitive learning into teaching the students were what I most wanted to grasp and hold onto.
So, what causes things to be forgotten? Slavin lists three factors that impede memory. 1) Interference – “when information gets mixed up with or pushed aside by other information. This can be cuased by not giving the student enough time to absorb or practice the new information. 2) Retroactive inhibition - “when previously learned information is lost because it is mixed up with new and somewhat similar information. This happens when similar pieces of information are being taught at the same time. If there are similar concepts, it helps to teach them in different ways and allow time for one to be mastered before the other is introduced. 3) Individual differences, such as learning disabilities can cause individuals to have more difficulty with attention and distractions. (Slavin p. 138)
How do we help students remember more? Facilitation – this can be proactive, which is when something learned previously helps the student learn something new, or retroactively, which is when something new helps the student better understand something previously learned. (Slavin p. 138) Primacy and recency effects show us that students learn the first things and the last things best. This should be kept in mind when planning the sequence of instruction. (Slavin p. 139) Practice is crucial because it can help the brain develop automaticity, which is when the skill or task becomes easy enough that it does not require much effort. (Slavin, p. 140) Learning by doing, or enactment, helps students learn better than simply watching or listening. And generation, where students create with the information they have learned – such as a summary or diagram, helps them better synthesize and learn. (Slavin, p. 141)
So what are some strategies that can be used?
1) Paired-Associate Learning - this is usually identification such as states/capitals or English/Spanish vocab. The strategy of imagery, forming a mental image of the two concepts together, can help with remembering. (Slavin p. 142)
2) Serial Learning – learning facts in a certain order. The Loci method of imagining a room and placing each item in the room. To remember the items, one walks through the room and looks at each place in the same order. The Pegword Method is another similar mental strategy. (Slavin p. 142-144). Initial letter strategies such as Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally to memorize the order of operations (Parentheses, Exponenets, Multiplication, Division, Addition, Subtraction), are also helpful. (Slavin p. 144)
3) Schema Theory suggests that fitting new information into a previously learned schema is more easily understood, learned, and retained (Slavin p. 145)
4) Background Knowledge – linking information to students’ background knowledge will help learner increase the depth of knowledge and understanding (Slavin, p. 146)
5) Metacognition – “knowledge about one’s own learning.” Students must be taught how to think about their own thinking and develop skills and strategies to help themselves study and learned. Examples: Practice tests, note-taking, underlining, summarizing, writing, outlining, and the PQ4R Method (Slavin p. 147-148).
Teaching methods that are effective in helping students learn include:
1) Advance organizers - “A statement about a subject to be learned that provides a structure for the new information and relates it to knowledge that the students already possess.” (Slavin p. 150) This is basically a link between the students’ background information and new information that is given up front.
2) Analogies – These are comparisons or parallels that help the student understand the new information compared with something that they are already familiar with.
3) Elaboration – This is using additional words or comparisons that help link the information to ideas that are already in the learner’s mind. (Slavin p. 151)
4) Questioning Techniques – Giving students time to stop, think, and answer questions about the material that was just presented.
5) Conceptual Models – Allows the students to organize and integrate the information by visually using a model or diagram.
Reflection
That chapter contained so much information that I found myself using some of the techniques it suggested for learning and retaining the information that I was reading. Even though it was lengthy, it was full of good ideas and reminders about things that I can do as a teacher to help my students better learn and understand information. Some of them are big things – such as using more concept maps and some are little, like pausing every few minutes for them to stop, think, and “rehearse” the information that they just received.
I teach American Government to ninth grade students in high school. The standard method of instruction in high school continue to be lecture, although it is often accompanied by other seatwork activities. Social Studies courses tend to be information driven. There is a lot of information for the students to learn! The quickest and most direct way of giving them information is by lecture. Unfortunately, that is not the best way for the students to learn, understand and retain information.
So, how can I still use lecture but enable students to retain the information better? First of all, grabbing their attention with a good hook or something interesting will tune their brains to focus on the lesson. Next, the lecture needs to be broken up into smaller chunks so that the students can stop, think, and “rehearse” in order to hold onto the information in their short term memory. Asking them questions about what was just covered is an easy way to do this. By using advanced organizers, analogies, and elaboration, the information can be linked to the student’s background information and previous schema. In this way, they can connect the new facts to information already in their long term memory and develop a deeper understanding.
In preparation for tests and assessments it is important to help the students develop their metacognition. There is not one way that works best, all the methods can be effective (Slavin p.147), so it would be helpful to use different techniques throughout the year to help the students find the ones that are most useful to them. They could make practice tests for one another, write summaries of what they have learned, and learn to highlight/underline only the main idea of the paragraph – not everything that sounds good.
Last year, my students really enjoyed doing debates. We did three of them during the year. After reading background information and discussing primary documents, the students were able to use that information to debate an issue such as whether or not to abolish the electoral college. The electoral college is a complicated topic. However, by “learning by doing” the students gained a much deeper understanding of the issue and the “facts” stayed with them for the remainder of the semester.
Another helpful idea was that of retroactive inhibition - “when previously learned information is lost because it is mixed up with new and somewhat similar information." I saw this problem last year as I taught the different forms of government. Governments can be classified by its leadership (monarchy, authoritarian, oligarchy, democracy). A democracy can be direct or indirect/republic. It can also have a president and legislature or a prime minister and parliament. The power structure of those forms of government can be unitary, confederation or federal. The students had a really hard time keeping those separated and understanding the relationships. Unfortunately, those are all taught in the same unit, so they will all be taught in the same weeks. This year, I want to re-think about how that material is presented and how I can better organize it for the students to more easily understand and learn.
I would like to re-visit the ideas in this chapter again. My presentations, lessons, and activities could all benefit from being viewed through this lens of cognitive learning for students.
Reference
Slavin, R.E. (2018). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice (12th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education
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